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<p>水是生命之源，也是國家之源。從大禹治水的久遠(yuǎn)傳說，到時(shí)下的抗洪救災(zāi)，治水一直與中國相伴?；谥嗡膬?nèi)生性需求，形成的社會(huì)治水與國家治水活動(dòng)，不但塑造著中國的社會(huì)性和國家性，還形塑著中國特有的社會(huì)治理和國家治理。</p><p>對(duì)以農(nóng)業(yè)立國的中國而言，水利是農(nóng)業(yè)的命脈。在季風(fēng)氣候影響下，不均勻的降水分布，造成我國水資源不均勻的季節(jié)分配和地區(qū)分布。正是水源不穩(wěn)的情況，促使人們?nèi)グl(fā)展由社會(huì)進(jìn)行控制治水的方法，由此產(chǎn)生了對(duì)水的治理。治水的過程，就是通過人為的活動(dòng)讓水服從于人的意志的過程。根據(jù)治水的不同主體，可以分為以社會(huì)為主體的治水和以國家為主體的治水，即社會(huì)治水與國家治水。</p><p>內(nèi)生的社會(huì)治水形塑治水社會(huì)</p><p>傳統(tǒng)中國實(shí)行的是一家一戶為基本單位的家戶制，分散性和孤立性是其重要特點(diǎn)。一家一戶雖然可以獨(dú)立完成大量的生產(chǎn)和生活活動(dòng)，卻難以實(shí)現(xiàn)“湖塘之水”到“灌溉用水”的轉(zhuǎn)換。生活在同一水域空間的村民，為了獲得超出個(gè)體能力和范圍的生存條件，需要借助一定方式與他人開展共同活動(dòng)。小到稻田間的分水、過水，大到開溝渠、挖塘堰、護(hù)堤壩，都需要專門人員或組織來協(xié)調(diào)。由此不但形成了以水塘、水堰為中心的塘委會(huì)、堰委會(huì)，以水壩、堤垸為中心的壩委會(huì)和垸委會(huì)，以泉水、河流為中心的水利會(huì)、河水會(huì)等自治組織，而且內(nèi)生了堤長(zhǎng)、壩長(zhǎng)、堰長(zhǎng)、塘長(zhǎng)、圩長(zhǎng)、河長(zhǎng)、垸首等治水負(fù)責(zé)人，還衍生出看水人、管水員、放水員、看堤人、守堰人等職業(yè)看水人。各種類型水利共同體的治水協(xié)作，不再是單家獨(dú)戶的個(gè)體性行為，而是一種社會(huì)性行為。</p><p>這種社會(huì)性治水活動(dòng)，是多個(gè)當(dāng)事人共同參與的組織性活動(dòng)。為維持水利共同體的有效持續(xù)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)，經(jīng)過治水當(dāng)事人的共同協(xié)商，形成了“過水不帶水”“下肥不過水”“缺水帶水”“溝田置換”“田土互換”等過水規(guī)則，“先遠(yuǎn)后近”“先高后低”等分水習(xí)慣，以及“近田水利、利者修渠”“勞三土七”“一天兩記”等出工、監(jiān)工方式。然而，因治水形成的共同體屬于次生性共同體，較原生性共同體的凝聚力和向心力弱，在極端的水利條件下容易發(fā)生沖突。由搶水爭(zhēng)水引發(fā)的沖突，在農(nóng)村矛盾中占相當(dāng)大比重。發(fā)生沖突后，雙方當(dāng)事人既可以當(dāng)面協(xié)商解決，也可以請(qǐng)當(dāng)?shù)赜泄帕Φ氖考澋冗M(jìn)行說和。倘若個(gè)別當(dāng)事人不愿遵守“共建共享”的治水活動(dòng)規(guī)則，將面臨來自水利共同體的集體懲罰。共同認(rèn)可的治水規(guī)則，被視為習(xí)慣法，水利共同體也因此成為具有共同活動(dòng)規(guī)則和秩序的自治體。</p><p>從“胡煥庸線”的區(qū)分看，在中國國土面積不到四成的濕潤(rùn)、半濕潤(rùn)地區(qū)，孕育著中國九成以上人口。在濕潤(rùn)和半濕潤(rùn)地區(qū)，治水是農(nóng)民日常生活中最重要的事務(wù)之一。一個(gè)個(gè)高度自治的治水共同體及其自愿聯(lián)合治水的社會(huì)性活動(dòng)，共同塑造著中國農(nóng)業(yè)社會(huì)的特性，即“治水社會(huì)”?？梢哉f，治水社會(huì)不僅是小農(nóng)社會(huì)得以延續(xù)的重要條件，而且是國家治理的社會(huì)根基。在傳統(tǒng)國家，皇權(quán)不下縣，政權(quán)機(jī)構(gòu)的設(shè)置止于縣。農(nóng)村小規(guī)模治水活動(dòng)主要依靠農(nóng)民自我的力量進(jìn)行。正是在這種社會(huì)治水活動(dòng)中，不但培育出中國農(nóng)民自力更生和艱苦奮斗的韌性，而且支撐著一個(gè)大規(guī)模文明體的持續(xù)。</p><p>內(nèi)生的國家治水形塑治水國家</p><p>在傳統(tǒng)中國，縱然社會(huì)治水能夠在各種類型的治水共同體內(nèi)實(shí)現(xiàn)自愿聯(lián)合，但水利共同體內(nèi)部、水利共同體之間發(fā)生的大規(guī)模沖突，依靠社會(huì)自治力量難以協(xié)調(diào)，只能依靠官方的公共性權(quán)威。與此同時(shí)，囿于交易成本、管理技術(shù)、工程規(guī)模的限制，社會(huì)治水的規(guī)模限于較小范圍。對(duì)于較大范圍或較大工程的治水，只能依靠國家完成。因此，內(nèi)生的國家治水，不僅決定著中國的國家存續(xù)，而且塑造著國家的特性。</p><p>由治水形成的江河湖堰治理，是一個(gè)豐富的多層次治水體系。這一體系的顯著特點(diǎn)是局部大于家戶，整體大于局部。具體而言，在社會(huì)治水中，治水共同體的利益高于個(gè)體家戶；在國家治水中，大江大河的必要性和緊迫性高于小塘小堰。正如費(fèi)正清在傳統(tǒng)中國所看到的，“要有效地進(jìn)行灌溉和防洪，必須有中央機(jī)構(gòu)加以控制”。這種治水體系很難采用聯(lián)邦制的方式。因?yàn)槁?lián)邦制國家中的各成員單位，早于聯(lián)邦國家存在，并擁有完全獨(dú)立的主權(quán)，只是在加入聯(lián)邦后將部分權(quán)力讓渡給聯(lián)邦政府，但保留部分管理內(nèi)部事務(wù)的權(quán)力。當(dāng)出現(xiàn)類似跨行政區(qū)域的京杭大運(yùn)河的開鑿、流域性的黃河治理，以單個(gè)聯(lián)邦成員為主體的聯(lián)合型國家，常常出現(xiàn)局部利益高于整體利益，難以實(shí)現(xiàn)國家的整體性治理。因此，對(duì)于地域廣袤的中國而言，單一制國家結(jié)構(gòu)形式與治水體系的統(tǒng)一性密切相關(guān)。</p><p>在單一制下，國家主權(quán)先于地方行政區(qū)劃存在。地方行政區(qū)劃是國家根據(jù)統(tǒng)治需要，按一定原則進(jìn)行區(qū)域劃分的結(jié)果。為履行國家治水職能，中國自西周時(shí)期已設(shè)置了主管水土等工程的司空；秦漢以來，不但在中央設(shè)置水行政管理機(jī)構(gòu)，而且從中央政府單獨(dú)設(shè)立派出機(jī)構(gòu)與官員主管水利工程建設(shè)，明清時(shí)期還創(chuàng)設(shè)了專門的河道管理機(jī)構(gòu)。對(duì)此，德國社會(huì)學(xué)家馬克斯·韋伯曾精辟地指出，“回顧一下中國歷史，便不難發(fā)現(xiàn)，治水的這一必要性是中央政權(quán)及其世襲官僚制之所以成立的關(guān)鍵所在”。也正是基于如此成熟的官僚制體系，中國才能發(fā)揮國家治水的“集中性”能力。在傳統(tǒng)中國建成京杭大運(yùn)河、都江堰、鄭國渠等，無不是國家集中治水的成果體現(xiàn)。國家治水不但將一個(gè)個(gè)分散的行政區(qū)域建構(gòu)成了統(tǒng)一的行政共同體，還建構(gòu)了經(jīng)濟(jì)、社會(huì)以及文化的共同體，進(jìn)一步強(qiáng)化國家的統(tǒng)一和中央集權(quán)。</p><p>可以說，中國因水而生，因治水而成。治水即治國的古訓(xùn)，昭示著我們從治水的歷史視野中發(fā)現(xiàn)中國的社會(huì)性與國家性。</p> 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